Wacc for Fedex Corp.

Preface First of all, I would like to thank Ms. Thuy for her enthusiastic guidance and response all of questions to help me complete this exercise easily. Simultaneously, thanks to her professional lectures on class which also build me with deep understanding of how to access and deal with problems in financial management so that I can complete this report. All of the data is collected through 2 website: http://finance. yahoo. com/ and http://www. finra. org/ I. ABOUT FEDEX CORPORATION: FedEx Corporation is a holding company.The Company provides a portfolio of transportation, e-commerce and business services under the FedEx brand, originally known as  FDX Corporation, is an American global  courier  delivery services company headquartered in  Memphis, Tennessee. FedEx Corporation is a Delaware corporation, incorporated October 2, 1997. FDX Corporation was founded in January 1998 with the acquisition of Caliber System Inc. by Federal Express,  the world's  largest airlineà ‚  in terms of freight tons flown and the world's fourth largest in terms of fleet size, delivering packages and freight to more than 375 destinations in nearly every country each day.With the purchase of Caliber, FedEx started offering other services besides express shipping. The  Standard Carrier Alpha Code (SCAC)  is a unique code used to identify transportation companies. It is typically two to four alphabetic letters long. It was developed by the  National Motor Freight Traffic Association  in the 1960s to help the transportation industry for computerizing data and records. FedEx's codes include: * FDE – FedEx Express * FDEG – FedEx Ground * FXFE – FedEx Freight * FDCC – FedEx Custom Critical II. STATISTICS AND CALCULATION: 1. Summary  statistics:Accroding to the collected data: There is one non- callable bond issues of FedEx Corporation (FDX) in the ten-year maturity which is FDX. GD, use its yield of maturity as the pre-tax cost of debt. * Market value of equity: 34. 3 billions in USD * Value cash: 34. 02 billions in USD * The beta is 1. 32 and risk-free rate is 2% * A market risk premium of 5% and tax rate of 35% 2. Estimated equation a. The market value of debt: Using the collected data in the appendix 3, the market value of debt can be easily calculated: The market value of FDX’s debt = $250,000,000*105. 08%+$750,000,000*130. 704%+$239,000,000*131%=$1,557,390,000 * Total value of the firm = Total of market value of debt and equity =$34,300,000,000+$1,557,390,000=$35,857,390,000 b. The weights for FedEx’s equity and debt: Weight for equity =34,300,000,00035,857,390,000=95. 6567% Weight for debt=1,557,390,00035,857,390,000=4. 3433% 3. Apply the CAPM to Calculate GM’s WACC Cost of Equity = Risk-Free Rate + Equity Beta * Market Risk Premium =2%+1. 32*5%= 0. 086 Effective Cost of debt = Rd1-Tc=5. 89%1-0. 35=0. 0376 WACC is the average of the costs of these sources of financing, each of which is we ighted by its respective use in the given situation. By taking a weighted average, we can see how much interest the company has to pay for every dollar it finances. A firm's WACC is the overall required return on the firm as a whole and, as such, it is often used internally by company directors to determine the economic feasibility of expansionary opportunities and mergers.It is the appropriate discount rate to use for cash flows with risk that is similar to that of the overall firm. The WACC equation is the cost of each capital component multiplied by its proportional weight and then summing:   WACC= EV. Re+DV. Rd(1-Tc) We can easily calculate: WACC of FedEx Corporation is approximately 8. 3898%. III. APPENDIX: Appendix 1: Market value of equity| Enterprise value cash| Beta| $34. 3| $34. 02| 1. 32| *dollar amount in billions| Appendix 2: Risk free rate| Pre-tax cost of debt (Rd)| %| 5. 789| Appendix 3: Bond Symbol| Issuer Name| Coupon| Maturity| Callable| Price| Yield| Amount out standing| | | | | | | | | FDX. GX| FEDERAL EXPRESS CORP PASS THRU TR| -| -| No| 121. 375| 4. 153| -| FDX. HR| FEDERAL EXPRESS CORP| -| -| No| -| -| -| FDX. HO| FEDEX CORP| 7. 38| 01/15/2014| Yes| 105. 608| 0. 507| $250,000| FDX. HP| FEDEX CORP| 8| 01/15/2019| Yes| 130. 704| 2. 327| $750,000| FDX. GD| FEDERAL EXPRESS CORP| 7. 6| 07/01/2097| No| 131| 5. 789| $239,000| *dollar amount in thousands|

Tutorial on Alligation

Tutorial – Alligation I This is a copy on a word document. A few members have posted that they could not open the original that was posted on August 4, 2002 as a Created Text File. The following is an exact duplicate: The following is a dilution problem, solved by using an alligation method. to see this problem solved by using ratio/proportion please see a Tutorial called: Tutorial on Dilution Using the Ratio / Proportion Method Problem: The doctor has ordered 60ml of a 12% solution of a specific drug (Rx). However, on the shelf you have only 30% (Availability or Av). What can you do? or use instead? Answer: Dilute the stronger 30% with WATER to make a 12% solution Calculation: Alligation or Ratio/Proportion Method This Tutorial is by using the Alligation method only. For the Ratio Proportion Method Please see the Tutorial on Dilution Using the Ratio / Proportion Method Begin by drawing a Tic Tac Toe diagram: NOTE: WATER has NO drug in it. Therefore the percentage (%) of drug is 0%. 1. Place the high in the upper left. (H) 2. Place the lowest in the lower left. (L) 3. Place the middle or what you are going to make in the middle. (M) 4. Subtract H – L and it becomes (both) the denominators. 30-0=30 5. Subtract H – M and it becomes the numerator of the lower right corner. 30- 12=18 6. Subtract M – L and it becomes the numerator of the upper right corner. 12-0=12 7. Check point: 12 + 18 = 30, 30 over 30 = 1 or 30/30 = 1 Note in the future doing other alligations: If your answer is one or 1 then you may proceed with a green light to the next step! Your alligation should look like this: 12 30% —– X 60 ml = 24 ml of 30 % solution 30 12% 18 % —– X 60 ml = 36 ml of WATER (0 % solution) 30 = 60 ml of 12% solution Dear All With the ability of this new site to keep the graphic or design of the tic tac toe, I have been able to enhance it here on a File attachment. The lines of the alegation stay straight!!! Jeanetta Mastron copyright July 18, 2002 The above is an exact copy/duplicate of the Created Text File on a word document. A few members have posted that they could not open the original that was posted on August 4, 2002 as a Created Textr File. The above is an exact duplicate. The following is the original date it was posted, the original link that is STILL on the site with the Created Text File, and a Print Screen which proves the original posted date. Original post date: Aug  4,  2002 Original link of JeanettasPTCBStudyGroup: http://f1. grp. yahoofs. com/v1/AMLVSb6aO3208cFhgB9h90haDMQjWFAZpRWYP9pgHo88xiQ8ZLvqBwWiBIDp pIEkkCdYpiUxP5thnV6nJHq6/5-%20Tutorial-1%20%26%20Study%20Information/S%208-%20Math%20Tutorials%20Only/Alligations/Tutorial%20on%20Allegations%20I This is the original and current description of the Created Text of: Tutorial on Allegations I Learn how to dilute a strong solution with WATER using the Allegation methodas described by Jeanetta Mastron CPhT, Founder of the PTCB Study Group! . To learn how to do this with the Ratio-Proportion Method see the Tutorial on Dilutio using Ratio/Proportion Method copyright July 2002 by Jeanetta Mastron This is a print screen to prove that this was posted earlier. [pic] Please note the correct spelling of the word is Alligation. [pic] ———————– Notice the dates: Original Sept 21, 2003 Word Copy Apr 3, 2009 Updated Word May 23, 2009

Fertilizer Industry Pakistan

The enhanced productivity in agriculture sector can be achieved by improved and efficient crop husbandry. Applying fertilizers in required quantity and quality at appropriate times with the using of other inputs can improve yield per healthcare of agriculture crops. In the article, the production of fertilizers, factors that affect on it and other relevant aspects have been analyzed. Introduction The fertilizer industry has played a significant and responsible role in the development of both the agriculture and industrial sectors of economy. Fertilizer Industry is in turmoil due to 70% rise in gas prices in the year 1999. Agriculture sector occupies the dominant position but failed to give due attention to Economic Development. The yield per hectare is low in our country due to various reasons. Using Fertilizer in required quantity and quality at appropriate time is best hope to improve per hectare yield if irrigation water and certified seeds are provided according to requirement and weather conditions are favorable, because fertilizer provides essential nutrients which are required for the smooth growth of a plant. At the time of independence of Pakistan, there was no any fertilizer factory but at present eleven fertilizer units work both in private and public sectors. The Government imports fertilizers by investing huge foreign exchange every year in order to meet the requirement of farmers which results in balance of payment crisis and shortage of food. In England in 1842 Sir John Lawes treated bones with sulphuric acid and began producing a product he called superphosphate. In 1685, or the first time, potassium was Detected in the rock salt mined at stassfurt, Germany. This discovery led to the foundation of the potash industry. In Pakistan, Fertilizer is produced since 1957, at present five types of fertilizer i. e. N, CAN, AS, NP, and SSP are produced and marketed besides imported Fertilizers, by both Public and Private Sector.

Management of International Business Finance Essay

Management of International Business Finance - Essay Example we can conclude that as long as the relative price of two currencies is flexible, it will then adjust to equal the ratio of their price level. Even if this type of adjustment does not take place, the ratio of price levels can give us a reference point from which we can assess if a current exchange rate is under or over evaluated in relation to its PPP level. For the OECD the simplest way to calculate PPP is to take into consideration a same product within two countries. It uses a liter of Coca-Cola to illustrate the example. In France, one liter is worth 2.3 euros where in the United States the same liter costs 2 dollars. Therefore the PPP (calculated as a ratio) is 2.3/2 which equals 1.15. The result can be interpreted as follows: for every dollar which is spent in the United States to purchase a liter of Coca-Cola, in France, it is necessary to spend 1.15 euros to receive the same quantity and quality of Coca-Cola. As the OECD points out, the PPPs are not only calculated for individual products but also for group of products. One of the most famous PPP index is the Big Mac PPP. Used as a vulgarization for a greater part of the population to understand the issues regarding PPP, it represents the exchange rate that would leave a burger in any country costing the same in America. (See Appendix 1) (The Economist â€Å"Food for Thought† May 27th, 2004.) The most important and certainly the best known research made on the failure of PPP in the long run is the â€Å"Balassa-Samuelson† effect, work of Balassa (1964) and Samuelson (1964) The effect states that if high-income countries hold a more important relative productivity advantage in the production of traded goods, they will consequently produce these goods more cheaply. Starting from the hypothesis that the law of one price – abstracting from complicating factors such as transportation costs, taxes, and tariffs, the law of one price states that the price of any particular good that

Enterprise Rent-A-Car Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enterprise Rent-A-Car - Assignment Example Avis and Hertz have been the major competitors of Enterprise in the car hire industry in the United States. However,they have majored on airport business. In 2002 hertz was the number one airport car rental brand in the United States followed by Avis (Kellogg school of Management, 9). At this time, enterprise was involved largely in local rental market and was rated top in this sector. Due to customer demand enterprise started airport business in 2002 and up to 2012 there have been ranked top seven years consecutively and thus expressing the command of the company in the industry. I would recommend the other companies to replicate them to match their success. However, they would need to implement the strategies used by Enterprise. Zipcarwas the first car sharing service provider and it dominated the market making super-normal profits before other companies such as Hertz and Enterprise joined .The reliability of this system has brought high competition in the industry . This has led to a drift of customers from car hiring and leasing to car sharing and thus reducing profits of Enterprise. They need to work go an extra mile and market themselves in car sharing or even introduce a better service than this. The growth and popularity of Zipcar is likely to reduce the profits of Enterprise since most universities and corporations have adopted this style of transport to ease traffic congestion and to reduce on costs of leasing and car maintenance.

Financial Data Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Data Analysis - Assignment Example Based on the theory, rend in demand or its indicators can be evaluated based on trends in such factors as wealth, utility of the subject asset, risks in substitutes, liquidity position. Demand defines desire and ability to purchase a commodity at a given price and bears a direct relationship with price. Consequently, general changes in commodity prices, as observed in variations in consumer price index, indicates changes in general demand. Similarly, personal consumption expenditure, as a factor of gross domestic product that is also directly proportional to value of GDP is an indicator of consumers’ level of wealth. The theory of Portfolio therefore offers a basis for understanding historical effects of personal consumer expenditure on consumer price index. The personal consumption expenditure is further an indicator of economic factors such as inflation and unemployment rates (Barro 17). This analysis considers corresponding data of consumer price index and personal consumpt ion expenditure for the period between January 2009 and September 2013. The following is the considered monthly data set. consumer price index personal consumption expenditure 211.952 9877.1 212.823 9838.9 212.523 9814.9 212.657 9798.7 212.998 9807.1 214.791 9798.8 214.72 9831.1 215.442 9930.7 215.88 9826.2 216.482 9847.9 217.165 9847 217.365 9896.8 217.478 9881.2 217.356 9908.4 217.38 9956.8 217.281 9970.1 217.23 9997.3 217.329 10018.5 217.69 10027.9 218.02 10075.7 218.319 10087.6 218.996 10139.7 219.471 10179.3 220.468 10188 221.067 10197.8 221.908 10215.1 223.106 10251 223.879 10255 224.747 10252.7 225.07 10269.1 225.594 10301.9 226.187 10302 226.753 10331.9 226.728 10372.1 227.049 10374.9 227.137 10372.1 227.605 10409.5 228.253 10466.6 228.95 10467.3 228.951 10499 228.648 10497.9 228.924 10493.6 228.836 10533.2 230.026 10523.2 231.227 10566.6 231.623 10558.6 231.071 10593.4 231.137 10602.4 231.198 10614.3 232.77 10643.5 232.34 10674.2 231.485 10678.7 231.831 10689.4 232.944 1070 7.7 233.318 10711.8 233.526 10735.7 233.947 10749.4 (Economic Research 1) The following graph shows the trend in consumer price index and the personal consumption expenditure. Graph 1: Consumer price index and personal consumption expenditure The graph suggest a slight correlation in the change in values of the consumer price index and personal consumtion expenditure. Changes in consumer price index is however minimal and less significant as compared to changes in personal consumption expenditure. The range between the two variables is a factors to trend visibility from the graph independent analysis of the two trends is necessary. The folowing graphs shows the independent trends for consumer price index and personal consumption expenditure. Graph 2: Consumer price index Graph 3: Personal consumption expenditure The two graphs shows a general increasing trend with shapes that are almost similar. This suggests that avalability of wealth into personal consumption expenditure is a fact or of the consumer price index in the considered period. The data can further be inferred to other periods and other economy to the conclusion that availability of wealth and gross domestic product are determinants of consumer price index in economies. Another alternative measure for the analysis of effects of personal consumption expenditure and consumer price index over th considered period is the corelation coefficient, a measure of the degree of association

Compare the function of IGOS and INGOS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Compare the function of IGOS and INGOS - Essay Example However, in the modern culture, these organizations are playing an important role in the world politics by influencing the global security and peace through their global collaborative function and working for the social and economical development of the member states. These organizations perform their functions according to the rules and regulations of intergovernmentalism, which means that a complete harmony is required. Whereas, Non-Government Organizations (NGO) are developed by some private personnel for the welfare of the society, which can also be international in their scope. These organizations do not posses any sort of government accreditation and established merely on the basis of mutual agreements among different personnel to raise funds through donations and grants from different philanthropists and international humanitarian organizations. However, they are recognized by the UN and many other international organizations as important political and welfare institutions. Th ese organizations are termed as international organizations due to the scope of their functionality, whereas in the real sense these organizations are not purely international organizations because they are not developed to coordinate the functions and efforts of the members for their mutual gains. The following table shows a compression between the objectives and functions of these two organizations. We will also evaluate that which organization better serves the humanity and promote the human rights in the world.

To What Extent did American Materialism Lead to the Soviet Union's Research Proposal

To What Extent did American Materialism Lead to the Soviet Union's Negative View of Western Capitalism during the 1970s and 1980s - Research Proposal Example to have a highly negative view of the United States in particular and Western Capitalism in general due to its opinion of American materialism as well as other factors detailed below. In many respects the Soviet Union’s negative view of Western Capitalism whether or not it was caused by American Materialism predated the 1970s and also the 1980s. The Soviet Union was supposed to represent the great communist alternative to Western Capitalism, and its alleged shortcomings including American Materialism and the suppression of the working masses. Reasons for the Soviet Union’s negative view of Western Capitalism were linked to the dislike of American Materialism and the other factors mentioned below as well. The communist ideology that formed the basis of the Soviet Union’s doctrines undoubtedly owed a great deal to the ideas and theories of Karl Marx, the co-author of the Communist Manifesto and sole author of the volumes Das Kapital. Both the Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital demonstrated the strong link between Karl Marx and historical materialism in his attempts to promote the rise of the proletariat at the expense of the capitalist classes. Officially the Marxist – Leninist ideology of the Soviet Union always hated American Materialism and its Marxist worldview makes that easy to understand.1 Economic status, class positions, as well as material factors should be the only things, which actually mattered for communists on the road to the inevitable victory of the proletariat over their capitalist oppressors. Karl Marx stressed that historical materialism was the only valid method of understanding the past, the present, as well as the future of the human species. It was the key to a communist present as well as a communist future until the end of time. Karl Marx and historical materialism as the Soviet leadership pointed out officially stressed that the ultimate victory of the proletariat would mean the end of organised religion and poverty as

Midterm Writing Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Midterm Writing Assignment - Essay Example During this period Richard Cobden and John Bright who came from the â€Å"Manchester School†, tried their best to bring about peace and harmony among the people by opposing war and imperialism which was rampant. Therefore, the term â€Å"Manchesterism† stood for the spreading of peace and goodwill among all people at all levels. Captain Alfred Dreyfus, who was a Jew, became an artillery officer in the French army because of his dedication and skill. In October 1894, he was sent for training which suddenly came to a grinding halt when he was accused of handing over military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. He was promptly arrested and accused of treason. There was no evidence or conclusive significance that Dreyfus was in any way involved, but yet he was convicted because the Army thought that they may be blamed for lending support to a Jewish officer. The Dreyfus Affair became a political scandal. The word â€Å"Eugenics† is taken from the Greek root which meant "good" and "generation" or "origin†. During the late eighteenth century it was used to denote â€Å"Science† of hereditary or good breeding. Gregor Mendel who worked with the cross breeding of pea plants, made popular the concept of genes ushering research in the field of genetics. One strand of genetic research trailed off into the realms of social history which in the beginning of the twentieth century came to be popularly known as â€Å"Eugenics†. During the 1840’s, Britain was going through a heavy crisis period. They were faced with a lot of economic problems and working class unrest. Investments and rail-road building took their toll as there was widespread famine in Ireland and Britain faced some of its most miserable days. Hence, this period was called the â€Å"Hungry 40’s†. Barriers or restrictions that are imposed on foreign competitors would certainly hamper trade relations between countries

Preparing for Old Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Preparing for Old Age - Essay Example James Henry was born in a family who struggled a lot financially. His parents were mere farmers who lost a lot of their earthly possessions during the â€Å"Dust Bowl† phenomenon. Being the fifth child, he only heard about their glory days when life was good and seemed promising. He only saw how difficult it had been for his parents and siblings to make things bearable. Mr. Henry says he also had to make a lot of sacrifices himself for him to help the family in their problem. As a young child, he helped his parents in the fields whenever he can and however he can. He learned to work hard even at a tender age especially during summer vacations. For him, it was quite easy to accept such kind of life then because they had few neighbors and most of them are not his friends anyway. Although there was this particular child whom he envied because they had a nice house and car and he was always dressed well, he never had strong feelings against his circumstances. As a matter of fact, he enjoyed helping his parents and siblings because their work time became their bonding time. They have strong relationships despite their financial struggles. Being the youngest in the family, Mr. Henry supposes he saw more of his parents’ hardships when they grew old. He says that when his brothers and sisters married, he was left alone to attend to his parents who started having problems of being old such as getting sick and weak.

Lauching a Lebanese Beer Company Essay Example for Free

Lauching a Lebanese Beer Company Essay Introduction 961 Beer has a fascinating history which illustrates to aspiring entrepreneurs that with hard work and determination, even crazy business ideas are able to succeed. At a time when building were being destroyed and the city of Beirut, Lebanon was in shambles, the founders of 961 Beer decided to move forward with founding Lebanon’s first craft brewing company – a surprising fact because this region of the world begin the tradition of brewing beer. As discussed below within the framework of a SWOT analysis, several factors contributed to the success of the company, and will play an integral part in the company’s future as it expands to meet demand. SWOT Analysis A SWOT analysis is meant to drive a company into meaningful action to capitalize on its strengths to seize opportunities as well as protect itself from outside threats or internal weaknesses. Strengths 961 Beer is fortunate in that it benefits from several internal strengths. Organizationally, the company is simplistic: with few employees and condensed management, the company is able to benefit from the strong direction of a select few. In addition, the few people involved, particularly Hajjar and Henrik, have a passion for food and drink and enjoy the process of providing high quality wine to their customers. In addition, with less â€Å"baggage† the company is able to quickly innovate and adapt to changes in the customers tastes. Hajjar is also very passionate about food and wines of the region, leading to his dedication to the success of 961 Beer. He provides leadership that focuses more on the product itself, in order to ensure that it will be a beer that the Lebanese will be 1 proud off. As a recent CEO, Hajjar also appears to bring a substantial amount of capital to initially invest in the business. However, money runs out quickly, and now 961 Beer must pay for itself. The 961 Beer product line also has several strengths. The beer is of high quality because it was produced using only fresh ingredients and in small batches. The company is able to produce several new beer styles, and it heavily uses Lebanese products in brewing its beer. This gives 961 Beer a unique advantage over other beer options, and it attracts customers who are looking to try something new, all while support Lebanese products. Several areas of marketing also have specific strengths. 961 Beer was able to coin the catchphrase â€Å"Are you resistant to change? † which took off in a time when the country was suffering from the effects of war. â€Å"Change† is a simple idea that is very popular in a downtrodden country, and by associating itself with such a concept, 961 Beer is able to appeal to a large group of potential customers. To further this concept, the packaging is deliberately â€Å"under-designed† and meant to be seen as simplistic, pure, and natural, which will attract customers interested in such aesthetic characteristics. The pub is also strategically placed in Beirut’s bustling nightlife scene. This helps to increase 931 Beer recognition and build brand loyalty among new customers. The pub also helps to provide as a gathering place for people to come and education themselves about the brewing process and try various types of beer. Weaknesses Like most entrepreneurs, 961 Beer was started by founders who had very little idea of what they were doing. By trial and error, Hajjar was able to brew batches of beer in his kitchen for several months until the beer began to improve. Although 2 Organizationally, the company is operating at capacity and is simply unable to produce any more for its additional customers. Also, it does not appear that 931 Beer is able to adequately predict how much demand is set to grow. Because the company is still new, there is little money for expensive advertising. This means that customers will be less mainstream, and more trendy, with the ability to follow the latest trends on the internet. Opportunities 961 Beer is the first craft beer in Lebanon in recent memory, even though Lebanon has a history in beer brewing. Education of customers leads to a fun, exciting experience that allows customers to â€Å"experience change† by trying more types of 961 Beer. This opportunity to provide a personal touch will give customers a lasting positive impression of 961 Beer. Personal interaction with customers allows the company to collect feedback on its beers and make adjustments. Customers are interested in supporting companies that heavily use Lebanese products. Particularly when the country is plagued by war, providing people the opportunity to work and be part of 931 Beer is a great way to create loyal customers. Advertising on social media is an effective way of reaching the younger, trendier crowd that is more along the lines of who is frequenting the bars and drinking on a regular basis. Threats Clearly, the colossal threat to the company’s survival is the place of its headquarters. Lebanon is routinely in wartimes, and has been through several wars with neighboring countries ever since 961 Beer began in 2006. Unfortunately, visitor levels to the 961 Bar decrease when conflict increases, which makes sales plummet. The competitive environment is monopolistic. The local beer market was monopolized by Almaza, which was acquired in 2002 by Heineken. In total, Heineken 3 controlled about 70% of the local beer market at the time 961 Beer was founded. With so much power, Heineken has pricing power that 961 Beer cannot match. Other bars became more reluctant to sell 961 Beer because the bar was seen as a threat to their own business. 961 Beer will need to befriend these bars and show them that the bars can enjoy more success by joining 961 rather than going against them. Many customers are not accustomed to drinking anything besides commercially processed, mass-produced beer from large competitors. This means that 961 Beer must educate their customers about the different types of beers and convince them to try 961 Beer. Evaluation Plan: Expand outside of Lebanon Based on the analysis performed above, it is clear that 961 Beer must expand out of Beirut, Lebanon in order to remain successful. While this will increase the risk of lesser quality or require the use of non-Lebonese products, expansion is required to ensure the company’s long-term success. Several steps must be taken before the expansion, all while 961 Beer continues to grow business in Beirut and manage bar operations. First, 961 Beer must address its capacity issues. 961 Beer seems to have had some difficulty in predicting the amount of beer it needs to brew in order to meet the growing demand. An analysis of their books will be helpful to garner a better idea of what demand will look like in the future, accounting for their company’s growth rate. Next, 961 Beer needs to establish relationships with businesses in neighboring cities and countries. Bottling and shipping beer from Lebanon is unrealistic with high likelihood of war, so 961 Beer will need to establish microbreweries within these other locations. Quality can still be maintained by ensuring that Lebanese ingredients are still used in the brew, but costs can be recuperated by charging customers in those 4 countries a higher premium for the same beer. Finally, 961 Beer needs to join international beer festivals in other countries in order to garner worldwide interest and to further increase recognition and demand among worldwide customers. There are several major risks that could undermine this plan for expansion. Clearly, the largest threat to 961 Beer is the ongoing threat of war in Lebanon and neighboring countries. Unfortunately, there is little to nothing that can be done to stop this threat. Without expanding into other countries, a war in Lebanon could wipe out the entire company. However, as discussed above, 961 Beer can minimize this risk by establishing separate microbreweries in other countries so that there is no single source where 961 Beer is brewed. Nonetheless, establishing other microbreweries increases another risk: the risk of uneven and unequal quality. 961 Beer can lessen this risk by brewing its â€Å"brewmaster’s select† along with seasonal beers to appeal to customers in the new countries. 5.

1906 British General Election Essay Example for Free

1906 British General Election Essay The Liberals lapped on the conservatives weaknesses, and used that to their strengths. The leadership of Campbell-Bannerman proved as a success by throwing out accusations towards the Tories, like their methods of barbarism and ‘Chinese slavery.’ They also had young, dynamic MP’s and the gaining of Winston Churchill. The liberals opposed the tariff reform and supported free trade like many working class voters. The Tories had won 334 seats in the 1900 election but that went down to 157 seats in the 1906 election, which is a loss of 177 seats. But on the other hand in the 1900 election the Liberals had 187 seats but by 1906 election they had gone up to 401 seats, which is a gain of 214 seats! The Conservative party introduced two new acts just before this General Election which decreased their popularity. The Education Act of 1902 was an attempt by the ‘Tories’ to improve national efficiency: Britain must improve the health and well-being of the nation if it was to remain a leading world power. The act abolished school boards, which meant that taxpayers funded primary school education. Although this was a successful policy, (attendance increased from 94,000 in 1905 to 200,000 by 1914) it angered non-conformists who were outraged that their taxes were being used to fund church schools. In fact, the Act was branded Rome on Rates, as the Catholic Church was benefiting from taxes being paid by anti-Catholic citizens: Balfour soon had to control a revolt as 7000 people refused to pay their taxes. This rebellion shows just how unpopular this act was and reduced the amount of support for the Conservatives. The Conservative party also had a ‘Laissez Faire’ attitude, which means ‘you are on your own’ with your health and wealth. Booth and Roundtrees studies showed that 1/3 of the population were in Poverty and in the Boer War soldiers were declared to unhealthy to fight. The Non-Conformists were also outraged by the Licensing Act of 1904, which aimed to reduce the number of pubs in areas where they were not needed. However, the government paid compensation to the brewers whose pubs were closed down which angered voters as the brewers were receiving unnecessary government funds. This act, The Brewers Bill was another attempt by the Conservatives to introduce reform,  which ended in their popularity decreasing in the 1906 election. These acts were important, not only because they weakened Conservative support but also because they gave the Liberal party new policies to increase popularity: they promised to reverse the Education and Licensing Acts, which made them more attractive to Non-Conformists. The reforms gave the Liberal party strength: whereas in 1900, they had been split over the issue of home rule and had suffered from faddism. The first major event that had an impact on the general election of 1906 was the Boer War. There are a number of reasons why the Boer War occurred, the first being Joseph Chamberlains appointment as colonial secretary whose job it was to strengthen the empire. South Africa was important in these plans as it had the most valuable land on the continent not only because of its trading location but also because of the recently discovered Witwatersrand goldfields growing wealth. Agreements in 1881 and 1884 gave the Boer states independence but they faced interference from imperialist Britain which escalated hostilities. These and other factors eventually led to war with the Boer states. Views were split on the subject but as the war went on the Conservatives were being increasingly blamed for their military inexperience. The war also allowed the Liberals to start a revival as it took views off the internal cracks in the party and gave it a united front as most Liberals disagreed with the war. The Boer war also created other issues for the Conservatives. There were 50,00 Chinese workers in South Africa (or also as it is known as ‘Chinese Slavery’) and despite the Conservative government having little to do with it the Liberals could portray them as exploiters of workers due to the long hours, poor pay and lack of rights they had. This harmed the Conservatives reputation with middle class voters because of the humanitarian issues (methods of barbarism) but more importantly badly damaged their reputation with working class voters because not only did it close off potential job opportunities in South Africa but also made many worried that they may implement the practice in Britain. Another major event that had an impact on the election was the retirement of Lord Salisbury who had been influe ntial in the revival of the Conservatives and the alliance with the Unionists. Salisburys successor, Balfour can be seen as another reason for the revival of the Liberal Party. As soon as Balfour was appointed the Unionist alliance began to break. Balfour is partly to blame for Chamberlains attempt to implement  the tariff reform in 1903. Although Balfour had little to do with it he failed to stop Chamberlain putting the reform forward which led to many people questioning his authority. This controversial policy split the unionist alliance so much so that many voters turned to the Liberals. The split was in three ways. ‘Whole Hoggers’ who supported the tariff reform fully. There were ‘Free fooders’ whom were mostly Liberal Unionists where they supported free trade and absolutely hated the idea. Then finally there were the ‘Balfourites’ who tried to create peace throughout the party. The reform stated that all non-British (and British Empire as well just pay lower taxes) colonies should have to pay tariffs on imports into Britain. But free trade was indented into British society and nearly all voters were against the idea as no one wanted to pay more for the same products. Another damaging misestimate by Balfour was the decision not to take any action on the Taff Vale incident. The railway workers on the Taff Vale railway went on strike in 1900. The management replaced them with National free labour association workers and then took the union to court for damages. The judge ruled in favour of the company which angered thousands of trade union members who wanted change but by 1905 the Conservatives had not taken any action whereas the Liberals and Labour were supporting change. Balfours successive miscalculations with this series of events led many to change their allegiances and angered many, none more than the working class who were becoming increasingly important. However it was not just Conservative weaknesses that caused the Liberals to win a victory in the 1906 general election, but also Liberals renewed strength. Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Herbert Asquith and William Gladstone are all acknowledged as great leaders and also with more dynamic MP’s, ( David Lloyd George, Herbert Samuel, Winston Churchill) while the Conservatives kept making mistakes the Liberals were gaining support, creating policies the public supported and forming alliances such as the Lib-Lab Pact. (The Liberal Party agreed to withdraw parliamentary candidates in some constituencies where the Labour was also standing in order to make sure the anti-Tory vote was not split.) And with the mess of the conservatives the Liberals promised to introduce social reforms. Overall, I think the statement is valid, as the Tories had their chance to show the public what they had to offer, but they failed and they wanted to have something new and  fresh. The Liberals took the Conservatives weaknesses to their advantage and won! With their fresh new MP’s it looked like the government, the future looked bright for the people in poverty.

Comparison of Different Ibuprofen Dosage Forms

Comparison of Different Ibuprofen Dosage Forms Both ibuprofen gel and ibuprofen tablet produced similar efficacy in terms of pain relief in their respective groups. However, lower dose was administered in gel dosage form and fewer side effects were observed, in comparison to ibuprofen tablet. Patients consuming ibuprofen oral suspension reached the therapeutic effect at a quicker rate and were in that period for a longer duration compared to the other dosage forms. This suggested that it caused faster pain relief for a longer duration compared to ibuprofen tablets and ibuprofen chewable tablets. Introduction Ibuprofen (Figure 1) is chemically known as iso-butyl-propanoic-phenolic acid. It is a well known drug that belongs to a class of therapeutic agents known as non-steroidal anti inflammatory drug (NSAID). It possesses antipyretic (fever reducing) and anti-inflammatory (reduces inflammation) properties among others (i.e. anti-platelet effect). It is used in the treatment of pain and inflammation in rheumatic disease and other musculoskeletal disorders including minor aches and discomfort 78. A recent report showed ibuprofen had analgesic (pain-relieving) properties. This was shown by testing analgesic properties of ibuprofen on a mouse writhing and an inflamed rat foot. It showed there was similarity of analgesic activity in both species. However, ibuprofen failed to show analgesic activity in the normal foot of the rat or in the mouse hotplate test. Therefore it was established that ibuprofen is not a central, but a peripheral analgesic 13. Ibuprofen has fewer side effects than any other NSAID; however its anti-inflammatory properties are weaker than others. Doses of 1.6-2.4g are required daily for rheumatoid arthritis. It is unsuitable for conditions where inflammation is prominent such as acute group 8. Ibuprofen was discovered by Dr. Stewart Adams and his team (Figure 2) 3 in the 1950s, at Boots Company. The drug was patented in the 1960s and was initially marketed under the name Brufen. Initially the drug was tested on hangover, but the drug was launched for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in UK (1969) and USA (1974) 3. The mechanism of action of ibuprofen is not completely understood. However, ibuprofen is known to be a non-selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-1 and 2 (COX-1 and COX-2). COX is an enzyme that is involved in the production prostaglandins 8. Prostaglandins have an important role in the production of pain, inflammation and fever 13. Following administration of ibuprofen, it is rapidly absorbed and distributed throughout the whole body. The drug is eliminated through the kidneys 14. Ibuprofen is a derivative of phenylpropionic acid (Figure 3) 4. It contains a chiral centre (Carbon), therefore is non-superposable on its mirror image 2. This gives rise to enantiomers, resulting in two possible structures of ibuprofen. The importance of enantiomers is that all amino acids (apart from glycine) have a chiral centre. Amino acids are the fundamental blocks of enzymes and proteins in all forms of life including humans. Thus suggesting the human body is controlled by chiral molecules and effectively is a chiral environment. This results in different enantiomers having different effect on the body, including metabolism, toxicity to name a few 1. These enatiomers exist as (S) and (R)-enantiomers (Figure 4) 4. It was found that (S)-ibupofen was the active form in, in vitro and in vivo 2. Ibuprofen began to be marketed as a single enantiomer ((S)-isomer) so the selectivity and potency of ibuprofen could be improved. However, further in vivo testing led to the inactive (R)-ibuprofen to rapidly convert to active (S)-ibuprofen. Therefore the single enantiomer was scrapped and ibuprofen was to be marketed as a racemic mixture (50% of each enantiomers) 2, even now it is the same. Another reason was the likeliness of producing pure (S)-ibuprofen was too expensive on a large scale. The difference between both the enantiomers is the way the atoms are arranged and connected to the chiral centre. In the (S)-isomer the CH3 group is in the back, whereas in the (R)-isomer it is at the front. Since being launched it is widely available all over the world as over the counter (OTC), prescription only medicine (POM) and general sale list (GSL) products. In all countries over the world they are available under different names, formulations, strengths etc. In North America (Canada), ibuprofen is known as Motrin and Advil. In South America (Brazil) it is known as Alivium and Advil 5. Different countries have different guidelines and policies regarding selling and prescribing of ibuprofen. People are not just restricted to pharmacies but they can be obtained in supermarkets, general retailers etc. In many parts of the world including Australia and New Zealand, ibuprofen lysine is licensed for the same treatment as ibuprofen. Ibuprofen lysine is the salt form of ibuprofen and is the cationic form. As ibuprofen lysine has a net positive charge, it is more soluble than ibuprofen allowing the drug to be administered intravenously. This makes ibuprofen lysine to have a greater onset time of action than ibuprofen 15. Since 1977, World Health Organisation (WHO) has been producing a model list of essential medicines. This list is updated every 2 years and is known as List of WHO Essential Medicines. Ibuprofen is the only NSAID present in the list among other classes (opoids, antimetabolites etc) 6. It is classed as a core medicine, which means it is an essential drug for basic healthcare. The drugs listed are the most effective, safe and cost effective medicines for conditions that are a priority. This priority conditions are on the basis of present and future public health relevance. The drugs present on the list are recognised throughout the world. Ibuprofen tablets (200mg and 400mg) are present for the treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis. Also present is ibuprofen solution, which is used as an injection (5mg/ml). It is used in neonatal care for the treatment of mild to moderate pain 68. Discussion The most important role of a drug delivery system is to get the drug delivered to the site of action in sufficient amount and at the appropriate rate. This can be achieved by a predictable therapeutic response of the drug 11. However it must meet essential requirements, which include physical chemical stability, ability to be economically mass produced in a manner that assures the proper amount of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is present in each dosage and patient acceptability 9. It can be seen from Table 1 11, different dosage forms have different time of onset of action. Table 1: Shows the variation in time of onset of action for different dosage forms. It can be seen that intravenous injection is the most superior dosage form in terms of time of onset of action, as it takes seconds to produce an effect. Depot injections and implants take days to produce an effect. Tablets are one of the most popular ways of delivering a drug through the oral route. Tablets are solid preparations each containing a single and accurate dose of active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) (API). They are completed by compressing or compacting uniform volume of particles to a solid dose 10. There are different types of tablets available; they include effervescent/soluble, modified release etc. The aim of the modified release tablet is it enables the biopharmaceutical behaviour of the drug to be controlled. Many tablets are available that have coatings; these include film or sugar coating. All these tablets exist and are formed by the incorporation of different types of excipients 11. They vary in shape, colour, size, design etc 10. Tablets are popular for several reasons including the oral route to be the most safest and convenient route of administration. Compared to other dosage forms such as liquid, they are far superior in terms of chemical and physical stability. The procedure enables accurate and precise dosing of the API 11. These are a few among a large list. Drawbacks include elderly having difficulty swallowing, irritation and harm to the GIT, possibly leading to liver and kidney damage. Examples of ibuprofen tablets include Anadin, Ibuprofen tablets etc. Effervescent formulation is a type of immediate release tablet, as the tablet is dissolved and administered as a solution. This is the most common type of tablet 11. They are used to obtain rapid drug action. Effervescent tablets are placed into a glass of water, where carbon dioxide is liberated. The carbon dioxide is produced by a reaction in the water between a carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid. Once liberated, this helps tablet disintegration and drug dissolution. Then the water with the drug is administered. Effervescent formulations of ibuprofen commonly use a carbonate to assist in the liberation of carbon dioxide, such as Anadin LiquiFast 200mg Effervescent Tablets 16. Effervescent formulations can be prepared in two ways: direct compaction or compaction through granulation 11. They are produced in the same manner as conventional tablets; however production must occur in low humidity areas 17. Examples of ibuprofen effervescent tablets include Advil, Ibuprofen losan effervescent tablet etc. Gel is a semi-solid, topical formulation. It is formed by aggregation of particles and interpenetrated by a liquid. The particles are linked together forming a network thus imparting rigidity to the structure. The continuous phase is held together by meshes 11. Gels tend to be epicutaneous, it is directly applied to the skin, and works by diffusing through the skin. There is a liquid phase that may be retained within a three dimensional polymer matrix. Drugs can be suspended in the matrix or dissolved in the liquid phase. They tend to be aqueous gels that is applied to the body surfaces such as skin or used as lubricant. A few advantages of gels include it avoids drug absorption in the gastrointestinal, therefore reducing side effects. It avoids first pass metabolism suggesting more drug is present in the systematic circulation. They are cheap to manufacture and have a localised effect, hence greater pain relief 12. Examples of ibuprofen gels include Ibuleve, Ibugel etc. A suspension is a coarse dispersion of sparingly soluble or insoluble drugs dispersed in a liquid medium; oily or aqueous vehicle. The aqueous solution is a beneficial formulation as it provides administration of poorly soluble or insoluble drug. As the drug is dispersed, it provides a large surface area which ensures high bioavailability for dissolution thus absorption 11. Aqueous suspensions can be used for oral, topical, ophthalmic and parenteral administration of drugs. The rheological properties are affected by the degree of flocculation. This is because the quantity of free continuous phase is decreased as it is entrapped in the diffused follicles 11. From Figure 5 9, the process involved in the formation of suspensions can be seen. The flocculated state (C) can be reached directly or indirectly. The direct method includes wetting and dispersing of hydrophobic particles (A) with a surfactant. The indirect approach includes first wetting and dispersing to form a peptized particle (B) with a surfactant, and then flocculating with a hydrophillic colloid. Flocculated suspensions (C) are considered stable, compared to peptized particles, and they can be re-suspended through agitation. Over-flocculation can be caused through high amount of flocculating agent, which tends to cause agglomeration (E). If the protective colloid agent is not present, the process of crystal growth is indicated by the arrow connecting (A) to (D) 9. Examples of ibuprofen suspensions include Nurofen, Calprofen etc. Chewable tablets, as the name suggests is placed in the mouth and chewed. Thus the tablet is mechanically disintegrated in the mouth. However, the drug is dissolved in the stomach or intestine once swallowed and not in the mouth. This formulation is intended so the drug is immediately released, just like effervescent tablets 11. They also have similar composition to conventional tablets, apart from disintegrant is not present. This formulation can be useful as many patients (e.g. elderly) have difficulties swallowing tablets, therefore this can be an alternative dosage form. It can also be administered without the aid of water. It also complies with patient compliance. Examples of ibuprofen chewable tablets include Motrin, Advil etc. Comparison of conventional tablet and effervescent formulation In a report comparing the antinociceptive effect of both conventional and effervescent tablets, it was discovered that the mean plasma concentration of ibuprofen effervescent formulation was far greater than the conventional tablet 60 minutes after intake. This showed that more API (ibuprofen) is present in the blood, thus more drug is being absorbed by the body in the effervescent formulation than in the conventional tablet. This showed that the effervescent formulation produced a faster pain relief as it had a faster onset of action. The effervescent dosage form also appears to have a more consistent effect on intensity estimates of painful stimuli than tablets 18. The chemo-somatosensory event related potentials were also investigated and it was concluded that after 60 minutes of administration of the ibuprofen tablet, there was a decrease of 20-25% in bioavailability. As there was a large drop (a quarter of the bioavailability), it shows there is 20-25% less ibuprofen present in the blood thus less API is being absorbed. This means a higher dose of ibuprofen tablet (20-25%) is required to have the same effect as initially thought 18. The effervescent formulation is far more effective in terms of chemo-somatosensory. This is because greater amount of carbonate is present; therefore after dissolution a buffered solution is attained. This increases the pH of the stomach resulting in the emptying of the stomach at a rapid rate and the residence time of ibuprofen in the stomach is short. This ensures that ibuprofen-induced gastric irritation and other side effects can be avoided 11. Ibuprofen effervescent tablet is readily absorbed in the small intestine; ensuring fast drug bioavailability 11. In another report, Lange and Schettler showed that effervescent formulations of ibuprofen produced a higher maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) than the conventional tablet in a shorter duration. The same as the previous report 19. In respect to antinociceptive and chemo-somatosensory activity, the effervescent formulation is superior to the conventional tablet. To consume the ibuprofen tablet you require water to administer it. While with the ibuprofen effervescent formulation it requires water so the tablet can disintegrate. Effervescent formulations also have to be manufactured at a low humidity area compared to the conventional tablets. This is to avoid moisture content, light and oxygen and this procedure is more costly than the conventional tablet. Effervescent tablets also have to be packaged in waterproof containers which have aluminium foil present which ensures protection, otherwise in ambient conditions it would degrade and reduce the shelf-life 11. If the shelf-life is reduced this would increase the cost, as more effervescent tablets would have to be manufactured over the same duration. An example of an effervescent tablet is Anadin LiquiFast 200mg Effervescent Tablets (Figure 6) 20 and a conventional tablet is Nurofen Tablets (Figure 7) 21. Figure 6: Shows Anadin Effervescent Tablets Figure 7: Shows Nurofen Tablets Comparison of conventional tablet and a topical gel There was a report comparing the oral (tablet) and topical (gel) ibuprofen for chronic knee pain. Ibuprofen tablets were taken 3 times daily (2400mg total) and the ibuprofen gel 4% was applied 4 times daily (320mg total) over a duration of 2 weeks 22. The aim was to compare the efficacy of both formulations in chronic knee pain. Both the treatment groups were comparable in terms of baseline pain severity and demographic composition, this ensured a fair test. When the patients took their respective ibuprofen medications, they reported side effects. With the administration of the tablets, 7 patients (out of 10) reported side effects which included headache, stomach-ache and constipation. For the application of the gel, 2 patients (out of 9) suffered a side effect which included an acute skin rash and dizziness. This implies that over two-thirds of the patients taking the oral formulation reported a side effect, and for the topical formulation less than third reported a side effect. As a result there were fewer side effects associated with the topical formulation compared to the oral formulation 22. In both treatments, the patients experienced consistent relief and improvements in terms of pain and stiffness. There was no distinguishable difference between both groups in term of improvements. Both the treatment groups were similar and no group was better than the other. However, the oral group ranked their treatment more convenient as it met patient adherence. Comparing the physical function and relief of pain and stiffness, it shows the oral ibuprofen treatment saw notable improvements. In the topical ibuprofen treatment there were significant improvements over the two week duration. However for the oral treatment there was a decline in the improvement of the drug in the second week. Also in the topical treatment, the patients encountered within-group improvements which led to the assumption that it was due to the potential benefits of massaging. The topical ibuprofen was applied to the skin therefore there was less amount of drug was present in the blood compared to ibuprofen tablets. This avoided both the systemic side effects and adverse drug interactions (e.g. aspirin), unlike the oral ibuprofen 22. The total daily dose of the topical ibuprofen was 320mg, which is a small fraction compared to the oral ibuprofen (2400mg). However, similar clinical outcomes were produced using both treatments. Another report concluded a study where the patients were receiving equivalent doses of oral and topical formulations. During the topical application greater concentrations of ibuprofen were found in the subcutaneous tissue, which led to the assumption as more ibuprofen is present in the tissue; it is able to provide greater pain relief 23. In terms of physical function, pain and stiffness relief, the topical formulation is superior to the oral formulation. An advantage of topical ibuprofen over ibuprofen tablets is first pass metabolism is bypassed therefore it avoids risks and unwanted effects. Topical ibuprofen is a transdermal delivery system, which is more efficient than the oral delivery due to having an effect at a localised level. Comparison of conventional tablet, chewable tablet and suspension There was a report comparing the pharmacokinetic parameters of ibuprofen tablets, ibuprofen chewable tablets (Motrin chewable tablets) and ibuprofen suspension (Motrin suspension) on patients with cystic fibrosis. This study is limited as the number of patients taking each formulation is different; suspension (n=22), chewable tablets (n=4) and tablet (n=12). , nor is the strength or concentration given for any of the formulations. However patients took a dose of approximately 20mg/kg. The time to reach the peak concentration (Tmax) was compared for all formulations and it was concluded that the ibuprofen suspension had a shorter Tmax than the ibuprofen tablet, which was expected when liquid forms are compared with solid dosage forms. But with the ibuprofen chewable tablet there was no statistical difference from either the tablet or suspension. This was not expected as it was predicted the chewable tablet would have a greater Tmax to suspension but less than that of tablets. This is because chewing the chewable tablet produces small particles hence larger surface area, which should increase the dissolution of the drug 24. As the Tmax for suspension was shorter than the tablet it can be concluded more drug was present in the body at a quicker rate, hence more drug would be absorbed thus causing faster pain relief. From Figure 8 24 and Table 2 24, it can be concluded that 15 of the patients taking the suspension formulation were present in the desired range of peak concentration (therapeutic range), and this was achieved at a quicker rate of ~0.5 hours compared to the other formulations. For the chewable tablet it can be seen that 2 of the patients consuming it were in the therapeutic range, however it took patients to reach this level between ~1.0-2.0 hours. For the patients who consumed the tablet, 8 patients were in the therapeutic range. However it took between ~0.75-2.0 hours to reach to this level. There was also one anomaly present In the suspension group 5 patients, and 2 patients from the tablet groups exceeded the therapeutic range (>100mg L-1), therefore they are more prone to experience side effects. None of the patients who consumed chewable tablets exceeded the therapeutic range. For all formulations, 2 patients were below the therapeutic range ( It can be concluded statistically tablets were superior in terms of achieving the desired range of peak concentration compared to other formulations. But statistically suspensions were superior in terms of the time taken to reach the therapeutic range compared to both formulations. Figure 8: Shows the relationship between Cmax versus Tmax for suspension, chewable tablet and tablet groups. The plotted points represent blood sampling times when peak ibuprofen concentrations occured. The horizontal dashed lines show the therapeutic range. Table 2: Shows the comparison of Cmax among suspension, chewable tablets and tablet groups. From Figure 9 24, it can be seen patients taking the suspension reached max plasma concentration and at a quicker duration compared to other formulations. It took 0.5 hours to reach a plasma concentration of 70mg L-1, while tablets took 1.0 hour to reach a plasma concentration of 60 mg L-1. The chewable tablet took 1 hour to reach 50mg L-1 (Cmin). Also for the suspension, between 0.5-1.0 hours it remained in the therapeutic range. For the tablet, the period between 0.75-1.0 hours it remained in the therapeutic range. It took the chewable tablets 1 hour before it reached the therapeutic range, before and after this period it had little effect. As the time reaches 6 hours, the suspension had the lowest plasma concentration, while the tablet had the highest concentration. However it was below the therapeutic range therefore at this point all formulations have no effect 24. It can be concluded ibuprofen suspension is the superior formulation in terms of pain relieving as it reached the highest plasma concentration at a quicker duration, and was in the therapeutic range for the longest period. It is closer to Cmax at 70 mg L-1, while the other formulations were below this. Due to these factors it can be seen that the suspension has greater amount of ibuprofen present in the blood, hence more drug is going to be absorbed in the body. Figure 9: Shows the plasma concentration-time curve (meanSEM) for children with cystic fibrosis who received a dose of 20mg/kg ibuprofen suspension (n=22), chewable tablets (n=4) or tablets (n=12). The SEM bars are not included for chewable tablet group. Conclusion Ibuprofen is a derivative of phenylpropionic acid, and is chemically known as iso-butyl-propanoic-phenolic acid. It is a non-steroidal anti inflammatory drug (NSAID), possessing properties such as analgesic, antipyretic and anti inflammatory. It is commonly used in the treatment of pain and rheumatoid arthritis among others. It is the only drug from its therapeutic class present on the List of World Health Organisation Essential Medicines. This list represents the minimum medicine required for a basic healthcare system. It includes drugs that are efficacious, safe and cost effective for conditions that are a priority. These conditions are selected on the foundation of current and future public health relevance. In terms of pain relief, antinociceptive and chemo-somatosensory effect, ibuprofen effervescent tablets are far superior to ibuprofen tablets. They caused faster pain relief at a quicker rate. Both ibuprofen gel and ibuprofen tablet produced similar efficacy in terms of pain relief in their respective groups. However, the dose administered in the gel dosage form was four times less than that of the ibuprofen tablet. Fewer side effects were observed as it avoided gastric irritation, in comparison to ibuprofen tablet. Ibuprofen tablet caused gastric irritation, which can possibly lead to liver and kidney damage. Patients consuming ibuprofen suspension reached the therapeutic effect at a quicker rate and were in that period for a longer duration compared to the other dosage forms. This suggested that it caused faster pain relief for a longer duration compared to ibuprofen tablets and ibuprofen chewable tablets. Ibuprofen chewable tablets reached a maximum concentration of 50mgL-1, so it just reached the base of the therapeutic effect, which suggests it has poor efficacy.

AVON Case Analysis Essay -- Business Management Studies Essays

AVON Case Analysis Organizational Mission Avon wants to provide everyone with high quality and innovative health and beauty products as well as financial opportunities through sales representatives that are easily obtainable, in many ways, in every part of the world. Avon hopes by bringing these products to everyone everywhere through global markets the company can improve the quality of life for anyone around the world. Corporate Objectives Corporate objectives bring structure to a company’s operations so it will sustain growth, achieve its mission/vision and set the outcome and target for the company to achieve. Corporate objectives include financial and strategic objectives. Financial Objectives: Growth in Sales: In 2001 the success of the Goodbye to Breast Cancer lipstick campaign, inventory clearance programs, and the increase of active representatives acquired through the successful implementation of the Sales Leadership program resulted in revenues growing 5% from $5,682 million in 2000 to $5,958 million in 2001. The growth in sales was due to the 9% increase in units because of the success of the programs implemented that are mentioned above. Avon plans to increase sales annually by continuing to recruit Leadership Representatives around the world, utilizing the Internet to help these Representatives sell Avon products more efficiently, and extending the Avon brand to new products and possibly new channels. (3) Bigger profit margins: Lower sales in Latin America than expected and additional strategic spending on consumer marketing initiatives caused the slight decrease in profits for the 2001 year. The drop may have been a lot worse if it was not offset by considerable margin improve... ... 3/20/02 Vol 239 P. B12A 12. Direct Marketing, Garden City â€Å"Avon to Target Teens† November 2001Anonymous, Volume 64 Issue 7 p. 22 13. Investor Relation Business â€Å"Avon Ups Johansen† Editorial Staff, January 28, 2002, p.1 14. Brandweek, â€Å"Avon Calls on Upscale Women for Becoming† by Christine Bittar, August 13 2001, p.6 15. Quarterly Report (SEC for 10Q) 16. â€Å"Unbecoming† by Moreno, Katarzyna, Forbes, June 10, 2002 Vol. 169 Issue 13 17. Business and Company Resource Center â€Å"Cosmetics, Household, and Personal Care Products US outlook† Lewis May 2, 2002 18. â€Å"Alliance Formation with Direct Selling Companies: Avon and Mattel†, Lawrence B. Chonko, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Winter 99’ Vol.19 Issue 1 pg 51. 19. â€Å"Most admired Soap and Cosmetic Companies, 2002†. Fortuen, March 4, 2002. pg. 77

We MUST Keep Repeat Offenders in Jail :: Sentencing Argument Argumentative

We MUST Keep Repeat Offenders in Jail   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why do killers, rapists, and child molesters go free? A large portion of early release prisoners commit serious crimes after being released. In fact, "in a three year follow-up of 108,850 state prisoners released in 1983 from institutions in 11 states, within three years sixty percent of violent crime offenders were re-arrested. More than half of those charged with violent crimes were discharged within two years."(from Truth In Sentencing by James Wooton). These criminals are sent right back to the streets to cause trouble again. The laws and justice system has to stick to their guns when it comes to prison terms. If some person is charged with armed robbery and sentenced to 15 years in prison, why should they be released in five years or less? We must make criminals pay for their crimes. If individuals are incarcerated for the full length of their given sentence, I believe that there will be less repeat offenders and an overall smaller crime rate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some say that if we cut down on prison terms we will save loads of tax money. There will be less need to build, maintain, and expand existing staff if there are fewer prisoners. But how much more can we cut these sentences, aren't they short enough already? The average jail sentence is seven years and eleven months, but the actual average time served is two years and eleven months. I think there are better ways to save money. For example, we should cut back on the funding of foreign governments. We have plenty of our own problems in the United States that we need to take care of. We should take care of our own before we try to help others. The money we would save would not affect us directly either. The money the government would save would not reduce our taxes or anything like that, they would take the money and invest it in something else important, like maybe giving themselves a raise. How can you put a price on your child's safety? When a repeat rapist is released early and rapes your daughter or sister, how important is that saved government money going to be?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There should be no tolerance for repeat offenders. I agree that everyone makes mistakes, but you must pay for those mistakes and learn from those mistakes. When criminals make the same mistakes over and over they should pay heavily for these repeat crimes. But criminals know that our justice system is soft, they know they will never serve their full sentence, if any at all.

Requirements for Success in an Industry and the Attributes of Successfu

Requirements for Success in an Industry and the Attributes of Successful Leaders In terms of hospitality, leadership is defined as: leading is the process by which a person with vision is able to influence the activities and outcomes of others in a desired way (Walker 543). David P. Norton from Decision Point, Inc says, â€Å"Leadership-the availability of qualified leaders at all levels to mobilize the organization toward its strategy.† Both of these definitions are correct depending on your perception of the word. Leadership has many complexities which result in different types of leadership, individual perceptions of it and many definitions. The hospitality industry finds that leadership is not only a wonderful quality to have, but also a very important tool in managing and running an organization. Leaders are very important and carry with them certain traits that contribute to their success. To leave an impact that many people care about and remember you by is achieved through being a good leader as well as a manger because leadership is pa rt of managing. As a result of the complexities of leadership, there are three types: transactional, situational and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is viewed as a process by which a leader is able to bring about desired actions from others by using certain behaviors, rewards, or incentives (Walker 543). Basically saying do this for that. The leader promises to exchange something an employee might desire for a task they do for the leader, the coming together of a leader, follower, and situation. For example, the leader might ask that you as a follower achieve certain goals for a bonus. A second type of leadership is situational which ... ... 2004. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Guidelines During one of my food service classes we were to come up with HACCP guidelines for a food. This allowed me to analyze and critique the entire procedure from the point food is received till it is prepared. I learned how important it is to pay attention to the little things involved with food preparation to the obvious. Meal Planning Project This project was done my sophomore year in college. It was a very time consuming project that was challenging and well worth it. The meal planning project gave me a chance to plan a menu for a full day that meets the recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines, the Food Guide Pyramid and the Recommended Dietary Allowances for an individual of your age and sex. The project limited me again with a budget of $4.00 total for the day.

Lost Wallet Essay

If you have never lost or misplaced something valuable to you, let me tell you it is not very fun. It is very stressful and can ruin your entire day. I would also suggest not doing such a thing because your family will never forget how funny you looked freaking out over the whole thing. In my case, it was my most precious possession at the time, my wallet, or purse for some, is a precious item in which most people carry things more essential than money towards everyday life. Some are made of Velcro, they can be snap buttons, or they can simply fold up (hence the term â€Å"billfold†). Mine was a Fossil leather brown tri-fold that I got as a Christmas gift from my grandparents more that five years ago. I’ve had that square leathery keep safe all my life, and I wasn’t planning on losing or throwing it away, ever. If some people were to lose that portable safe, they may be offset for the rest of that day. The person without that wallet could be cranky or depressed for a while. Maybe something of great sentimental value was in that wallet. This person could stay hold these feelings for a long time, until they find their belongings by which case they are filled with joy. I myself, personally, keep anything I may have interest in knowing where it is, in my trusty, four-sided, tough wallet. I am also very good about always having my wallet and never losing it†¦ until recently. In my wallet, I store dire personal items such as my license and some pictures. When you open the pocketbook up, you immediately see a picture of myself, which is one my driver’s license. In the picture I am wearing a Notre Dame sweatshirt, and my hair is way too long. No, I was not going for the â€Å"JB† haircut look I had it way before all the â€Å"Bieber Fever† fan base came to be thank you very much. The pictures are of my dearly beloved family – mom, dad, brother and sister, grandma and grandpa; the people who mean the most to me on this earth. Among other things, I have my money, like everybody else, and certificates for stores like Pac Sun, Express (Yes I like to have a nice formal wardrobe), and various restaurants like Chipotle or Panera Bread. This summer, I went to Ft. Lauderdale, Florida with my Mom and sister. We flew down there and I took my wallet with me, like I would any other time. We had a two-hour flight at six in the morning. That was hell. I personally like waking up early, it’s the two women in my family that do not. The day is too precious to sleep it away. They were in crabby moods from when we left the house, till we got all the way to our first stop, Atlanta Georgia. The airport in ATL is huge! I thought of it as its own personal little city. You could literally live in this place. There are boutiques and restaurants lined down the halls where businessman, sports teams, and eager families ready to go on vacation busily run down to catch their next flight. We had an hour layover so we decided to eat some breakfast since it was only about eight-thirtyish o’clock. I got some delicious chicken biscuits from Chic-Fil-A and they hit the spot. Hot and juicy chicken tasted so good with the honey glazed biscuit that was baked perfectly with a nice crust and soft, chewy insides. After we had our food fixes, we relaxed in some seats we found near a window while we waited for our next flight to Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. The flight lasted for about two hours. The plane landed smoothly on the runway and we were ready to get our vacation started. Me being the only male on the trip only had one bag, which was checked in as a carryon. Well, for the other two females, had at least one other bag each and for that, we had to wait in baggage claim for just about an hour. After that was all settled and done, we went and got our rental car, which was a bluish purplish metallic Saab convertible. The drop top came in handy on that hot and muggy Florida with cool breezes. As we drove away and pulled out into the street, the whole skyline opened up over the horizon. Ginormous hotels were lined up right after the next that overlooked the calm Atlantic Ocean. You could see pelicans flying around them amongst the light blue sky, that which completed the ideal look of southern Florida in my book. We got to our hotel, it wasn’t as tall or fancy looking outside as did the others, but inside was very nice. It had shinny marble floors with antique couches and of course, a piano in the lobby. Me being the instrument lover that I am, I naturally walked over and played a tune or three while my mom and sister got us checked in to our room. The piano was a neatly kept Yamaha that was black with gold pedals. It had a sound to it that would melt an angel’s heart, or any girls’ that seemed my age and happened to be walking by for that matter. We rode the elevator up to the tenth floor. Inside there were golden handrails with mirrors on every side, there was no music playing. We reached the floor that our room was on and we walked to the door, sliding the plastic card to unlock the door, and away we went inside to see where we would be residing for the next week. The room was square with two beds that was neatly made and had plain beige colored bedspread. I immediately called sleeping by myself since I was the only guy, and I also knew that my sister kicks and grinds her teeth when she sleeps and I did not want any part of that on my vacation. We got settled in, I took a shower since I hadn’t that morning since we got up so early. When I got out the two girls were already gone so I called my sister. â€Å"Where did you guys go? † I asked. â€Å"Oh, we’re down outside sitting at a table. Come join us and we’ll get something to eat† was the response my sister gave. That’s all I needed to hear, the word FOOD. I am always hungry, so I got dressed quickly and ran out the room. I put on a grey Rip Curl â€Å"bro-tank† and some black shorts that I had gotten from one of my baseball teams that didn’t have pockets in them. As I left the room I made myself do a mental check of my valuables; phone, wallet, check. The girl met me in the lobby and we walked out to the rental car, I offered to drive. My mom stops dead in her tracks and says, â€Å"Oh shoot, I forgot my sunglasses up in the room. Hold on I’ll be right back. † Me and my sister wait outside the car and talk about what all we are trying to do while we’re are down here in the beautiful city of Ft. Lauderdale. Well, when someone doesn’t have pockets, then it is hard to keep their wallet right next to them at all times. I was carrying my wallet and my phone out from the hotel, along with the rental keys that my mom tossed to me when I offered to drive the fancy convertible, and set the wallet and keys on top of the car. There was no way I was putting my phone down, I had to be taking pictures of course. My mom shortly returned, passing back through the sliding glass doors to the entrance of the hotel with her big, black sunglasses on her head, so I opened up the door and got in the drivers’ seat of the car. When I figured out that I needed the keys in order to get in the car and turn it on, I reached up and took them off the top of the roof, unknowingly leaving my wallet leaving my wallet behind. I sat in the car, car door open, waiting for my mom to make it to the car so we could all go to a diving area. Once he made it to the car, without thinking, I closed the door and started the car. I had been driving about a mile or two before I realized that my wallet was no longer on my body. Immediately, I pulled the car over, and the next hour or so was spent looking for my wallet. All I could think about was what I would lose if I didn’t find my favorite and only wallet. The week before was my birthday, and I was given sixty dollars to Best Buy and fifty dollars to Auto Zone. Pictures of loved family members, and aside from that I had about forty dollars in cash. While walking up and down the road that my wallet had to have flown off on, my sister found my Best Buy card. That eased my mind a little. However, that was all we found of my dear wallet. My family and I gave up after wasting an hour of finding nothing. I didn’t want to drive anymore. Losing my wallet made me depressed for the rest of the day. I could not believe I did something so stupid. Now, if you haven’t flown on an airplane recently you know that you cannot get onto a plane without your I. D. I had no problem staying in Ft. Lauderdale until I got a new I. D. , but my mom was not very happy and this made her and I quite nervous. We got to this little restaurant a few blocks down which had good reviews that we read about. The food was delicious. I had king crab legs and sweet tea. The crab was so fresh and the tea was as sweet as a box of chocolates. This meal kind of made me feel a little better, but my spirits were still crushed after had just losing my wallet and a lot of personal objects in it. We had spent the whole day sitting by the pool and walking along side the white sandy shore talking and having a good time. The next day I received a call from my grandmother – the sheriff’s department from Broward County, where I was during this fiasco, contacted her and when she answered the phone the sheriff said, â€Å"This is Deputy ‘so-and-so’ from the Broward County sheriffs department. Do you know Morgan Anderson? † This startled my grandmother. The sheriff then continued to explain to her that he had found my wallet with a picture of my grandma and her phone number on the back, some two miles from the hotel in which I was staying. She gave me that picture with the number in case I forget her number. Now how sweet is that? He left her information on how to contact him if she wished to retrieve my wallet. My grandmother called me and relayed that information. That very afternoon I got with the sheriff and recovered my wallet. That made my day, knowing that everything I had lost in my wallet was now returned to me, except for my forty dollars in cash, which seemed odd, but didn’t really matter to me at that time. I was just happy to have my square leather tri fold Fossil wallet back in my possession again. Obviously this made the trip that much more enjoyable and relaxing, especially for the sake of my mind. We spent our time soaking up the sun at the pool and beach, snorkeling in the deep blue ocean looking at the reef and vibrant fish, ate at delicious cafe’s and restaurants, and of course with the two girls, shopping. All in all, it was a very solid trip. Before we knew it, it was that time to leave and go home. Luckily, we didn’t have an early flight out of there so we could spend a little time on the last day doing whatever we wanted. I just chose to sit outside and listen to music. I got to know a few people in the hotel that were also on vacation so I spent a little time talking with them. You wouldn’t believe how many people are there from international countries. It then came time to check out and leave the hotel. We hopped into the rental car one last time and made way for the airport. The whole flight I slept comfortably with my headphones in listening to some Red Hot Chili Peppers’ funky bass lines and catchy choruses, which kept me, sound asleep. I woke up when the plane touched down in Kansas City, there we claimed our baggage and walked to my mom’s car that had been waiting for us since we left that exact day a week ago. After I had been sleeping for a straight six hours, I had some restored energy and wanted to drive us home. â€Å"Got your wallet? † My mom sarcastically asked as she looked at me and smiled while she handed me her keys. I didn’t say anything back I just laughed, pulled it out and showed it to her as a entered the car. Since that single event, I have lost my wallet two other times, none as serious as before though. These were just for about ten or thirty minutes when it was in my room or in my car somewhere. I have also lost something sincere to me by putting it on top of the car, my morning coffee. The carelessness of my misplacing’s have taught me a lesson, simply think before I act. This is something everyone is told to do numerous times; it is a good attribute to have. Only now, it is easier for me to apply that to my actions. If I follow that idea I could avoid future problems like this, preemptive caution. It took a scare like this for it to finally kick in to me, and now every time before I drive off I get out of the car and look at the roof just incase I’m forgetting something.

Performance Management at Jet Food Services Essay

It is now the end of Sampada’s first year as regional manager for Jet Food Services. As regional manager, Sampada supervises a total of ten districts, each of which has a manager responsible for sales and service to customers in that area. Jet Food provides contract food services for hospitals, schools, colleges, business firms, and other institutions that need meals prepared on site but that do not wish to be responsible for operating such services. Jet Food Services hires all necessary kitchen employees, purchases all supplies, and prepares meals in accordance with specifications agreed on with customers. The district manager is responsible for coordinating all customer activities. This includes planning, budgeting, hiring and supervising Jet`s on-site representative (customer service manager), customer satisfaction, and contract renegotiations. Sampada was recruited after years of experience as director of food services for a multicampus university. In that job, she had oversight responsibility for the food services at several campuses. The Jet Food position offered an opportunity for continued growth and advancement. In her first year, Sampada has concentrated on getting to know the district managers and the customers with whom they work. She spent more than a week with each district manager and visited each customer with him or her. At this point, she feels comfortable with her job and the knowledge she has gained of both operations and personnel, and it is time to appraise the performance of the district managers and to schedule review meetings with these employees. Sampada`s assessment of Ranjan: Ranjan is the longest term district manager in Sampada’sregion. He completed less than one year of college, held several short term jobs, and then joined Jet as a shift supervisor of the company`s services at a large college. At present, he is completing twelve years of employment with Jet. He has been a district manager for three years. In working with Ranjan, Sampadahas observed his strengths, along with some problems. Ranjan has a talent for working with people, Jet employees and customers alike. In fact, in his years with Jet, no customer he worked with has ever switched to a competitor. Many on-site supervisors recruited, trained, and supervised by Ranjan have gone on to become managers of other districts.On the other hand, Ranjan’s unhealthy eating habits – despite doctors` warnings – have contributed to some serious medical difficulties. During the past year, Ranjan was out of work for three months with gallbladder and heart problems, attributable in part to obesity. And Ranjan’s behaviour towards others can be overbearing. Sampada kept track of her phone calls from district managers during the year, and there were more calls (or messages) from Ranjan than from the other nine district managers taken together – calls to promote or advertise his own efforts. Although Ranjan can be charming, he has started to be loud and rude with regional personnel whom he perceives as excessively rule – oriented. All in all, Ranjan’s style and appearance have become entirely different from what Sampada is accustomed to in colleagues and employees.Further, it has been announced that Sampada’s region is going to be expanded and that a new position, that of assistant regional manager will be created. Ranjan has made it clear that as Jet`s longest tenured district manager in the region, he feels entitled to this promotion. However, Sampada does not feel she could work with Ranjan as the assistant regional manager. She feels that their management styles are too different and that Ranjan’s behaviour might irritate regional and corporate personnel. As Sampada looks over Jet`s performance assessment and management instrument, she realises that her honest assessment of Ranjan’s performance in his current job is generally excellent. She glances at the last page of the assessment and management form and the overall ratings from which she will have to choose. Jet`s overall rating system is on a 1-10 scale, with 10 as outstanding; 7-9, different degrees of excellent performance; 5-6, satisfactory; 3-4, below average; and 1-2, unacceptable. Sampada is uncertain as to what overall rating to assign. If she gives Ranjan too high a rating, he will expect to be promoted. If the rating is too low, Ranjan will doubtless be angry, feeling that an injustice has been done. Ranjan`s Self-Assessment and Management: Ranjan sees himself as different from the other district managers. An outgoing, gregarious type, he loves to visit his customer locations and work with his company`s personnel. His idea of a successful day is one spent teaching a customer service manager a new operating procedure or management technique. In fact, Ranjan is known to roll up his sleeves and teach Jet employees a new recipe or how to improve an existing dish.Ranjan has worked for several district managers and has always liked to keep them informed about his activities, sometimes phoning two or three times a day. From discussions with Sampada, he is aware that she thinks many of these calls are not necessary, but he wants her to know how things are going with his employees and customers. He is also aware of Sampada’s views regarding his ignoring medical advice. Ranjan is proud of his career and of what he has been able to do without much higher education. He feels he is qualified to become a regional manager, and he looks forward to the possibility of promotion to the new assistant regional manager position as a step toward this ultimate goal. Ranjan’s Assessment Rating: In reviewing the situation, Sampada decides to give Ranjan an overall rating of 6. She feels justified, given that Ranjan did miss months of work as a result of neglecting his health. She knows that Ranjan will expect a higher overall rating, but she is prepared to stand behind her evaluation. Sampada then goes back to considering the separate ratings she will assign and to making plans for their feedback review. Questions:1 How would you describe Sampada’s approach to the assessment and management of Ranjan’s performance? 2 Are Sampada`s concerns with Ranjan’s performance legitimate? Will Ranjan have justifiable reasons for feeling dissatisfied with the assessment and management results?

Motorcycle Helmet law debate Essay

Across the United States, every year millions of license drivers choose to ride motorcycles rather than drive automobiles for a variety of reasons; Reasons range from individual pleasure to a much more cost effective way to travel. The universal motorcycle helmet law debate over the past forty years has revolved around whether the federal government should adopt a universal helmet law that mandates all motorcyclists to wear helmets at all times when riding to reduce societies economic cost, or whether the individual rider should have the right to choose rather to wear or not wear a helmet. In 1967, nearly all States implemented a mandatory universal helmet law in order to receive federal funds to repair and improve our Interstate Highways. Once the 1966 National Highway Safety Act was imposed, the history of motorcycle helmet legislation began. Americans have continuously debated over the balance between an individual’s rights, the best interest of the public and when the government should take measures to protect the people of the United States from harm. Four out of five Americans are in support of a universal helmet law, yet motorcyclists represent only about two percent of all registered vehicles in the United States (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008). This suggest that a majority of supporters are either not motorcycle owners and/or seemed to have taken a utilitarianism cost and benefits analysis approach, which according to Michael Sandel â€Å"many argue, that a weakness in utilitarianism is that it fails to respect individual rights. † Supporters believe that wearing a motorcycle helmet protects riders’ by preventing serious head injuries and lowers mortality rates, which results in society saving an immense deal of economic cost, such as taxes, insurance premiums and government funded healthcare expenses. Non-supporters, including myself a registered motorcycle owner, argue that a universal helmet law is unconstitutional, as it violates our right to â€Å"Freedom of Choice† as written in our Bill of Rights. Despite the tremendous amount of statistics, that claim motorcycle helmets may reduce head injuries and lower fatalities, as of now only twenty States and the District of Columbia currently have and enforce a universal motorcycle helmet law, twenty-seven States that do enforce partial motorcycle helmet laws that are directed at riders under a certain age (usually 18) and three States (Illinois, Iowa, and New Hampshire) still currently have no helmet laws in use (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008). In order to have a better understanding of the ratiocination of the universal motorcycle helmet law, you have to know the history of the legislation of the universal motorcycle helmet law. The beginning of motorcycle helmet legislation in the United States was when the 1966 National Highway Safety Act was originally created to generate additional federal funding to States for our Interstate Highway System. However, in order for the States to receive funding, the federal government placed stipulations that influenced States to comply with safety laws that the federal government wanted to be in place. If the States did not comply, they would lose these funds (see Note: a, b, c, d and e in Figure 1, Homer, Jenny and French, Michael 416. ) Prior to 1966, only three States (New York, Massachusetts, and Michigan) had motorcycle helmet use laws, even though motorcycle helmet usage began as early the 1920’s by Motorcycle racers as a form of protection (Jones, Marian Moser, and Ronald Bayer 209). By 1967, after the federal standard for State Highway Safety Programs was implemented requiring States to have a universal motorcycle helmet law in effect in order to qualify for additional federal funds; All but three States (California, New Hampshire and Illinois) complied by implementing and enforcing a universal helmet law that required all motorcycle riders to wear helmets, so they would qualify to receive the additional Interstate Highway funding. Then, By 1975, 47 states and the District of Columbia had adopted universal helmet laws. This trend reversed dramatically in the latter half of 1975 when Congress acquiesced to the pressure exerted by groups such as ABATE, and amended the Act to remove the contingency of federal highway funds on universal helmet laws. The amendment led to the repeal of universal coverage in 27 states shortly thereafter (Derrick, Allison J. , and Lee D. Faucher 229). Between 1989 and 1994, Congress once again began to try and influence the States to mandate a universal motorcycle helmet law by implementing the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, also known as ISTEA. ISTEA provided special â€Å"incentive† grants to states with both universal motorcycle helmet laws and passenger vehicle safety belt use laws. A state qualified for a first-year grant by having these two laws in effect. In subsequent years, the state also was required to exceed minimum motorcycle helmet and safety belt use levels (helmet use of 75 percent in the second year and 85 percent in the third year). Twenty-three states and the District of Columbia received grants for one or more of the fiscal years 1992, 1993, and 1994 for which the grants were authorized (R. G. Ulmer and D.F. Preusser 5). The ISTEA Act was much more effect on the universal safety belt law rather than the universal helmet laws; States were more successful in implementing and convincing Americans to comply with safety seat belt laws rather than a universal motorcycle helmet law. I agree with Charles Umbenhauer of USA Today who believes â€Å"Unlike seat belts, helmets represent a separate purchase. Helmet laws, on the other hand, are a manifestation of society’s belief that its members lack the wisdom to make decisions about personal safety and must therefore be subjected to arbitrary laws. † Between 1995 and 2001, Congress implemented the National Highway System Designation Act. This Act repealed the ISTEA largely in response to lobbying by the educated and very organized motorcycle groups, such as American Motorcycle Association â€Å"AMA,† Motorcycle Riders Foundation, and American Bikers Aimed Toward Education â€Å"ABATE†. The lobbying of these groups resulted in five States (Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana and Texas) repealing their universal helmet requirements. According to the Congressional Record- Senate on June 20, 1995 that after very much debate over mandating a universal motorcycle helmet law, US Congress decided that States would be required to implement motorcycle rider education programs instead of a universal helmet law to receive funding. Congress acted in accordance to Aristotle belief that â€Å"Legislators make the citizens good by forming habits in them, and this is the wish of every legislator, and those who do not effect it miss their mark, and it is this that a good constitution differs from a bad one† (Sandel, Michael 198). Of the current thirty States that allow adult riders to choose rather they prefer to wear helmets or not, three States require the rider must be 18 years or older; Five States require the rider must be 21 years or older; The remaining nineteen States have other stipulations that require riders to either complete motorcycle training courses, have a helmet in possession, but not required to wear the helmet and/or a minimum of $10,000. 00 of medical insurance that is specifically for injuries resulting from motorcycle crashes (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2008). In November 2010, supporters led by safety groups and the insurance industry began to lobby that all States that currently do not have and/or enforce a universal motorcycle helmet law should implement a universal motorcycle helmet law; Aristotle would have most likely supported this act, as he stated â€Å"The purpose of politics is nothing less than to enable people to develop their distinctive human capacities and virtues—to deliberate about the common good, to acquire practical judgment, to share in self-government, to care for the fate of the community as a whole† (Sandel, Michael 194). While on the other hand, universal helmet law opponents like Congressman Jim Sensenbrenner that stated: It is the job of Congress to defend the freedom and individual responsibilities that motorcycle riders across the nation enjoy as they travel the open roads of America,† and â€Å"Mr. Strickland’s plan greatly concerns me as it is not the job of the federal government to create one-size- fits-all helmet laws. Mr. Strickland appears to be intent on pursuing all means possible to enact mandatory helmet laws either at the federal level or by violating the principles of the 10th Amendment and bullying the States into enacting mandatory helmet laws. Motorcyclists under the leadership of very organized motorcycle groups in the United States, since 1967 have continued to lobbying for repeal in the twenty States that currently have a universal helmet law. Most Americans agree there is a need to create laws that set limits and regulations in order to have a civilized society; However, motorcyclist believe this can be done without the government violating our individual â€Å"Freedom of Choice†, which allows a person to decide to take risks as long as they are only risking their own person and their property. According to libertarian theory of rights, Even if riding a motorcycle without a helmet is reckless, and even if helmet laws save lives and prevent devastating injuries, libertarians argue that such laws violate the rights of an individual to decide what risks to assume. As long as no third parties are harmed, and as long as motorcycle riders are responsible for their own medical bills, the state has no rights to dictate what risks they may take with their bodies and lives (Sandel, Michael 60). Despite the overwhelming evidence, some motorcyclists (including myself) refuse to wear helmets all the time when riding and oppose universal helmet laws because universal helmet laws represent government interference and these laws impede an individual’s â€Å"Freedom of Choice. † Most Americans would agree that wearing a motorcycle helmet is probably one of the safest pieces of protective outerwear when riding a motorcycle, but opponents of a universal helmet law, are disagreeing with the idea that the government should not mandate laws that take away an individual’s right to choose what to wear based on the Ninth Amendment: The Ninth Amendment [to the US Constitution] says no law shall be enacted that regulates the individual’s freedom to choose his personal actions and mode of dress so long as it does not in any way affect the life, liberty, and happiness of others. We are being forced to wear a particular type of apparel because we choose to ride motorcycles (Jones, Marian Moser, and Ronald Bayer 212). The United States Constitution is the foundation for the laws written in the United States. Our â€Å"founding fathers† created the constitution to establish a government for the people of the United States of America, but it does not grant you individual rights. The Bill of Rights was created to grant and protector your individual rights by limiting powers of government. A universal helmet law is an act of means ends paternalism based on Immanuel Kant’s distinction made between hypothetical and categorical imperatives. â€Å"Means-ends paternalism mirrors a hypothetical imperative, because it essentially takes the form of requiring people to do things that will lead to the satisfaction of their own goals. † States Legislatures have passed a universal motorcycle helmet law in the past and justified by claiming it would prevent people from exposure of serious head injury, which would cause financial and emotional harm to others, not just to the riders. Those who continue to support and lobby for a universal helmet law, make the claim that helmets are effective in reducing head injuries, which society bears the costs of non-helmet riders’ injuries, thereby establishing a public interest. By requiring the rider to use reasonable safety equipment, such as a motorcycle helmet, it prevents harm to others, not just to the motorcyclist. If the motorcyclist chooses not to wear a helmet, they may increase the risk that when an accident occurs, it could possible result in more severe injuries. The riders is guarantee government funded medical assistant under the United States Constitution, so the costs of those accidents will become a burden not only on the riders, but also on taxpayers, because not all riders have sufficient insurance or savings to pay for all of their medical expenses. According to John Stuart Mill, â€Å"subject to background duties of justice and fair contribution, state coercion is justified only to prevent or punish acts causing harms to other persons, not harms to self. Harm to others can be found in almost any type of behavior; indirect harm is subject to limitless expansion. Those who support apparently paternalistic policies identify superficial harms to others, such as financial burdens associated with risky behaviors. † Examples of this type of behavior would be the costs of emergency response and health care for injuries that could have possibility been prevented by wearing a motorcycle helmet. According to NHTSA Report to Congress regarding the Benefits of Safety Belts and Motorcycle Helmets society would be able to save cost by mandating a universal helmet law. An analysis of linked data from CODES with universal helmet laws showed that without the helmet law, the total extra inpatient charges due to brain injury would have almost doubled from $2,325,000 to $4,095,000; A number of studies have compared hospital costs for helmeted and un-helmeted motorcyclists involved in traffic crashes. These studies have revealed that un-helmeted riders involved in crashes are less likely to have insurance and more likely to have higher hospital costs than helmeted riders involved in similar crashes; Estimates that motorcycle helmet use saved $1. 3 billion in 2002 alone and an additional $853 million would have been saved if all motorcyclists involved in fatal crashes had worn helmets; Estimates that motorcycle helmet use saved $19. 5 billion in economic costs from 1984 through 2002 and an additional $14. 8 billion would have been saved if all motorcyclists had worn helmets during the same period; CODES study also found that brain injury cases were more than twice as costly as non-brain injury cases for the one-year period studied. Among the un-helmeted motorcycle inpatients, charges for those suffering brain injuries were 2. 25 times higher than for those without brain injuries. Long-term costs were not included. (See EXHIBIT 13 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 1996). Both sides of the debate present strong arguments that support their reasoning’s regarding a universal motorcycle helmet law. Supporters of a Universal motorcycle helmet law continually argue that, a universal helmet law would save not only health care costs; it would in addition also lower taxes, insurance rates and save lives according to NHTSA’s reports. Meanwhile, those who oppose a universal motorcycle helmet law believe â€Å"Despite the strong evidence implicating repeal of helmet use laws as the cause of the large recent increases in fatally injured motorcyclists, the American Motorcyclist Association claimed that â€Å"after an examination of available current data on motorcycle accidents, fatalities, registration and licensure, in addition to such relevant topics as weather conditions, we find that the NHTSA [was] altogether premature in its judgment . . . â€Å"in faulting the widespread repeal of helmet use laws. ’ The Motorcycle Safety Foundation has also recently suggested that the NHTSA has selected information supporting helmet use laws and disregarded information to the contrary† (Watson, Geoffrey S. , Paul L. Zador, and Alan Wilks 580). NHTSA, the insurance industry, and motorcyclist groups use FARS and GES Auxiliary Datasets, which are one-to-one mappings of the Accident, Vehicle, and Person files. When conducting research you have the ability to analyze the data in either its full detail as coded or only the data you want to, it depends on the safety issue that is being questioned and the results that you which to obtain, which can led to biases results. By passing a universal motorcycle helmet law, the Federal Government is suggesting that the average adult motorcyclist does not have enough common sense to make their own choices, therefore they are required to mandate or should I say dictate proper behavior for a motorcyclist. The best solution is to educate both motorcyclist and automobile drivers through safety training that will help prevent motorcycle accidents, rather than mandating a universal motorcycle helmet law that only violates the rights of the motorcyclist right to choice or not to choice to wear a helmet. It is the history of motorcycle legislation debate that demonstrates to me, American motorcyclist have placed a value on their â€Å"Freedom of Choice† and have been successful over the past four decades communicating that they value their â€Å"Freedom of Choice† to the government; For that I am thankful. Motorcyclists in general, enjoy the sense of freedom that we associate with riding and by passing a universal motorcycle helmet law it would strip away that sensation from us. As, when I am riding a motorcycle without a helmet my senses come alive, that includes my sense of freedom! It is the power of the sun warming my skin, the touch of the cooling breeze across my face, the aroma of the salty ocean air or the giant redwoods, the sound of thunder roaring beneath me, which allows me to have the sense of flying freely. 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